15018752330
发表时间:2015-11-26 浏览次数:516次
Introduction
Invasive breast cancer is considered one of the great challenges for clinicians
to control and improve survival of patients. In 2013, an estimated 232,340 new
cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed in women in the USA, along with
other 64,640 cases of non-invasive breast cancer.For women under 45, deadly
forms of this type of breast cancer are more common in African-American women
than white women, and African-American women are more likely to die of breast
cancer. Despite three decades of advances in treatment of breast cancer using
hormone receptor modulators, aromatase inhibitors, and surgery, mortality
remains high due to tumor metastasis to the lymph nodes, liver, and lung.
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) accounts for 10-20% of diagnosed breast
cancers and is more likely to affect younger African Americans, Hispanics,
and/or those with BRCA1 mutations. TNBCs are more aggressive, difficult
to treat, and more likely to spread and recur. TNBCs are different from other
kinds of breast cancer in that they are highly metastatic and resistant to
conventional therapies, such as anticancer drugs and radiation.
In a
search for an agent that inhibits proliferation and invasion of TNBCs, we
evaluated an extract derived from an Indian herb, Withania somnifera (WS), which is a nightshade medicinal plant that contains active components for
the treatment of a variety of ailments, including cancer. The use of WS root
extract is practical since it contains the active compounds present in the
plant. In TNBC cells, sub-cytotoxic concentrations of withaferin A, derived from
WS, reduce various effectors of metastasis. In the present study, we assessed
the effect of the WS extract on proliferation and metastasis of MDA-MB-231
cells, derived from a TNBC, in cell cultures, and in mice.
Methods
Preparation of WS extract
Roots of WS were
ground to a paste, and then extracted with 5 volumes of 70% ethanol by stirring
for 2 days. The alcoholic extract was filtered, and the solvent was evaporated
under a vacuum. The extract was then dried to a powder and kept in a closed
container until use. To avoid variations in the activity of different
preparations, the sufficient extract was obtained in one batch for use
throughout the experiments.
Reagents and
antibodies
WS roots were purchased from a local market in the USA
and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) from Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA). Antibodies
(anti-chemokine CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, PARP, and GAPDH) were from Cell
Signaling (Beverly, MA, USA). Human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cell line and a
normal breast cell line, MCF10A, were obtained from ATCC (Manassas, VA, USA).
The HCA-II human cytokine primer kit was obtained from Real Time Primers (Elkins
Park, PA, USA).
Cell culture and treatment
Breast
cancer MDA-MB-231 cells were maintained in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium
(ATCC) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and penicillin/streptomycin.
MCF10A cells were maintained in complete MEGM (Lonza, Houston, TX, USA). All
cell cultures were incubated at 37 °C with 5% CO 2 in a humidified
incubator.
Assessment of cell viability
To assess
the effect of the WS extract on regulation of cell viability, cells were seeded
into 96-well, 6-well or 6-cm plates at densities of 10 3 , 10
4 or 10 5 cells per well, respectively. For experiments
requiring longer than 48 h, cell numbers were reduced by one half. Viability was
assessed by using the
3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium
assay in 96-well plates in triplicate with CellTiter 96® AQueous One
Solution cell proliferation kits from Promega (Madison, WI) according to the
manufacturer's instructions. Absorbance was recorded at 490 nm using a Synergy
HT multimode plate reader or PowerWave XS2 (BioTek® , Winooski, VT,
USA) reader. DMSO was used as a control. To calculate the viability index,
absorbance readings from DMSO-treated control wells were set at 100%, and the
relative A490 was calculated as a percentage of the control.
Flow
cytometry
Cells treated with the WS extract were harvested and
prepared for flow cytometry as described by Samuel et al.,[13] with some modifications. WS treated and untreated cells
were harvested by trypsinization in 0.25% trypsin/ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid. Prior to trypsinization, floating or loose cells were harvested by gentle
rocking of the culture dishes and transferring the culture medium containing the
cells into centrifuge tubes. Trypsinized and detached cells were then combined
and centrifuged. Cell pellets were suspended in 300 μl of phosphate-buffered
saline (PBS), fixed with 700 μl of 100% ethanol with vortexing, and stored at
-20 °C overnight. The fixed cells were centrifuged and stained in
fluorescence-activated cell sorting staining solution (3 mg/mL RNase A, 0.4
mg/mL propidium iodide) in PBS without calcium or magnesium for 30 min at 37 °C
and then filtered through a 70-μm filter and analyzed by flow cytometry
(FACScalibur® Becton Dickinson or C6 Accuri® flow
cytometer). Data were analyzed with CellQuest and CFlow software
(BD).
Immunocytochemistry
Breast cancer MDA-MB-231
cells were seeded in 4-well plates and grown for 16 h. The cells were then
treated with DMSO (vehicle) or with 25 or 50 μg/mL of WS root extract for 18 h.
After treatment, the culture medium was removed, and the cells were fixed with
10% neutral buffered formalin. Xenograft tissues were placed in an automatic
tissue processor, embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5-μm thickness, and stained
with hematoxylin and eosin (HE). For immunohistochemistry, the fixed cells and
tissues from xenografted tumors were stained with CCL2 antibody because this
cytokine is considered to be most responsible for metastasis of breast cancer.
[14] The sections were de-paraffinized in xylene and
rehydrated through a series of graded ethanol (100%, 95%, and 70%) and in water
for 5 min each. The sections were then washed three times for 5 min each in PBS
containing 0.05% Tween 80 (pH 7.4). Antigen retrieval was achieved by heating
the sections in a microwave with 0.01 mol/L sodium citrate (pH 6.0) solution and
subsequently cooling down to room temperature. Endogenous peroxidase activity
was blocked by incubating the sections for 30 min in 1% hydrogen peroxide in
methanol. Non-specific binding was blocked by incubating the sections for 1 h
with a normal horse serum (Vector Laboratories, Inc., Burlingame, CA, USA). The
sections were then incubated with mouse anti-CCL2 (MCP-1, eBioscience, San
Diego, CA, USA) overnight at 4 °C. On the next day, the sections were rinsed 3
times with PBS at room temperature and then further incubated with goat
anti-mouse IgG-FITC (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA, USA) for 1 h at
room temperature. The fluorescence was then read using a wide-field fluorescent
microscope (Olympus, Center Valley, PA, USA). Stained sections were reviewed and
scored according to the intensity of staining (0, +1, +2 or +3) and for the
percentage of tumor cells staining positive for CCL2 (0%, 0.1-30%, +1; 31-70%,
+2; or > 70%, +3). The score of the intensity of immunostaining was
multiplied by the score of percentage of cell staining to obtain the final
staining index.
RNA isolation and quantitative reverse
transcription-polymerase chain reaction
Total RNA was isolated
from treated and control samples with RNeasy Mini Kits (Qiagen, Valencia, CA,
USA) and reversely transcribed into cDNA using Quantitect Reverse Transcriptase
Kits (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. All primers were
from SABiosciences (Valencia, CA, USA); and quantitative polymerase chain
reaction (qPCR) amplification was performed using 50 ng of cDNA, 10 μl of
Brilliant III Ultra-Fast SYBR Green qPCR Master Mix (Agilent Technologies, Santa
Clara, CA, USA), and 500 nM of each primer. β-Actin was used as the internal
control, and the final reactions were adjusted to a total volume of 20 μl with
DNase RNase-free water (Qiagen). All qPCR amplification was performed in
duplicates with a Stratagene Mx 3005P system (Agilent Technologies), and the
conditions were set to initial cycle of denaturation at 95 °C for 10 min, 40
cycles of denaturation at 95 °C for 30 s, annealing at 55 °C for 1 min, and
extension at 72 °C for 1 min. The final segment involved generation of a
dissociation curve. This comprised one cycle at 95 °C for 1 min, followed by 55
°C for 30 s and 95 °C for 30 s. Inclusion of a dissociation curve in each qPCR
run ensured specificity of the amplicon.
Microarray
analysis
To determine the effect of WS extract on expression of
cytokines in MDA-MB-231 cells, cells were incubated overnight with either 50
μg/mL WS or DMSO (vehicle) as a control. The analysis was accomplished by use of
HCA-II cytokine primer library II according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
Experimental mice and
treatments
Athymic Nude-Foxn1 nu mice at 6 weeks of
age were obtained from Harlan Sprague-Dawley and housed in animal quarters at 22
°C with a 12 h light/dark cycle. Animals were given free access to water and
food. These studies were approved by the Tuskegee University Institutional
Animal Care and Use Committee. At 8 weeks of age, mice were injected
subcutaneously with 0.2 mL of PBS containing 1.5 × 10 6 human breast
cancer MDA-MB-231 cells into the right flanks. Twenty mice that developed tumor
sizes of 50-200 mm 3 were divided into two equal groups. The control
group received 0.2 mL of 5% DMSO orally by gavage, and the treated group
received 300 mg/kg/day WS root extract dissolved in 5% DMSO orally by gavage
daily for 5 days a week for 8 weeks. Tumor sizes were checked weekly in each
group. Tumor dimensions in mm (length and width) were measured with vernier
calipers and calculated for each tumor by using the following equation: tumor
volume = 1/2 (length × width 2 ). At the end of the 8th week, mice
were euthanized with CO 2 . Tumors and lung tissues were collected
and fixed with 10% formalin for histopathological and immunochemistry
analysis.
Evaluation of lung metastasis
Two
pathologists histopathologically evaluated lung metastases in untreated and
treated groups after staining of sections with HE, and the results were reported
independently. The number of metastatic foci was counted in each stained tissue
section.
Statistical analyses
Student's
t-test was used to assess differences between values for the treated and
control groups. One-way analysis of variance was used with Dunnett's test.
Results
WS extract caused a dose-dependent reduction of viability of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells by 75% and 88% after treatment with 50 or 100 μg/mL WS extract, respectively, compared to vehicle-treated controls [Figure 1], but WS treatment did not affect the viability of non-cancerous epithelial mammary cells, MCF10A [Figure 2]. Moreover, compared to untreated controls, WS extract caused a concentration-dependent increase in the sub-G1 phase of the cell population, by 6% and 10% after exposure to 25 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL, respectively [Figure 3].
Furthermore, WS extract inhibited proliferation of xenografted MDA-MB-231 cells, reducing the size of xenografted tumors by 60% compared to the untreated control after 8 weeks of treatment (P < 0.05) [Figure 4]. In addition, after euthanasia, six of ten mice in the control group showed tumor metastasis to the lung, whereas none of the mice in WS-treated group developed metastasized tumor lesions in the lung [Figure 5]. This finding motivated us to explore the underlying molecular mechanism by which the WS extract inhibited tumor metastases to the lung.
Microarray analysis of gene expression of cytokines was then performed. WS suppressed expression of CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, IL1B, TGFB3, and BMP4 mRNA [Figure 6]. These inhibitory effects were confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis [Figure 7]. WS caused a 75% reduction in CCL2 expression (P < 0.05) in the xenografted tumors of treated mice [Figure 8].
Discussion
The current study assessed the effect of an alcoholic extract of WS roots on
proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro and in nude mice, respectively. WS roots have been used in ayurvedic medicine
for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancer, and anti-stress properties.
These diverse effects are attributed to the presence of active steroidal
compounds that are called withanolides. Our current data showed that the WS
extract inhibited proliferation and metastasis of MDA-MB-231 cells in
vitro and in nude mice. This inhibition was greater than that caused
by withaferin A. The difference in inhibition may be attributed to the fact that
the whole extract contains active ingredients that have a synergistic effect
against breast cancer cells. Since MDA-MB-231 cells are "triple-negative" form
estrogen-independent tumors in vivo, the anti-proliferative effect
of WS is apparently estrogen-independent. The WS extract caused increases in the
percentage of MDA-MB-231 cells in the sub-G1 phase, indicating that WS causes
apoptosis. Withaferin A, one of the active compounds of WS, causes G (2)/M cell
cycle arrest, associated with modulation of cyclin B1, p34(cdc2), and PCNA
levels, decreases the levels of STAT3 and its phosphorylation at Tyr(705) and
Ser(727), and alters expression levels of p53-mediated apoptotic markers-Bcl2,
Bax, caspase-3, and cleaved PARP.
Results of our current mouse
experiments are consistent with in vitro data. The WS extract,
administered orally, inhibited formation and growth of MDA-MB-231 cell
xenografts in nude mice, indicating that the active ingredients of the WS
extract are bioavailable after oral administration. Six mice of the untreated
group developed tumor metastasis to the lung, whereas none of the treated mice
showed such tumor metastases. This effect may be attributed to inhibition of
CCL2 in xenografted tumors after treatment with WS root extract. These results
are consistent with a previous study concerning the inhibition of CCL2 in
animals. Inhibition of CCL2/CCR2 signaling by anti-CCL2 antibodies blocks
recruitment of inflammatory monocytes, inhibits metastasis, and prolongs the
survival of tumor-bearing mice. Depletion of tumor cell-derived CCL2 also
inhibits metastatic seeding. Moreover, CCL2 mediates development of cancer stem
cell (CSC) phenotypes. Promotion of CSC is relevant since these cells, through
self-renewal, maintain heterogeneity and give rise to metastasis of breast
cancer.
Our current data are consistent with those reported by others. A
root extract of WS showed dose-dependent inhibition of tumor growth and
metastatic lung nodule formation with the minimal toxicity to mice. The extract
apparently inhibited cancer metastasis through inhibition of the
epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Furthermore, withaferin A treatment of
MCF-10A cells inhibited EMT and in mice, reduced mammary cancer growth, effects
of which were associated with reduced vimentin expression. In the present
study, the oral dose of WS extract used to inhibit tumor metastasis to the lungs
was 300 mg/kg/day body weight. This dose was extrapolated from the cell culture
experiments regarding the effect of WS extract on MDA-MB-230 cells. This dose
was selected based on a pilot study involving a range of doses to estimate the
optimal dose. In addition, the in vitro cytotoxic concentration, ranging
between 50 and 100 μg/mL, gave us an idea about the dose. In a previous study,
WS root extract inhibited lung metastasis of xenografted MDA-MB-231 cells at a
dose of 8 mg/kg body weight, administered 3 times a week for 4 weeks. This dose
is 37.5 times less than the dose used in our current study. There is no obvious
explanation for the difference in the two doses. Differences in the source of
roots, age of roots, and extraction yield may contribute to different
dose-responses when using crude plant extracts. However, the WS extract, at a
dose of 150 mg/kg/day for 155 days, caused a 23% reduction in development of
mammary tumors in rats administered the carcinogen, methylnitrosourea.
In transgenic (MMTV/Neu) mice that received a diet containing the
extract (750 mg/kg of diet) for 10 months, mice in the treated group (n =
35) had an average of 1.66 mammary tumors, and mice in the control group
(n = 33) had 2.48, a reduction of 33%. Moreover, in treated mice, WS
caused a 50% reduction in the expression of CCL2. [
WS caused in vitro and in vivo inhibition of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells and caused a significant reduction
in expression of the cytokine, CCL2, a marker of the metastasis of breast cancer
to other organs. These results warrant further studies to assess the underlying
molecular mechanism of WS extract antitumor activity in the breast cancer
metastasis.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by NIH Grant U54 CA 118948.
References
1.Cancer Facts and Figures. American Cancer Society; 2014. Available from: http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2014/. [Last accessed on 2015 Mar 14].
2.Triple Negative Breast Cancer. Available from: http://www.nationalbreastcancer.org/triple-negative-breast-cancer. [Last accessed on 2015 Mar 14].
3.Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, Redmond CK, Kavanah M, Cronin WM, Vogel V, Robidoux A, Dimitrov N, Atkins J, Daly M, Wieand S, Tan-Chiu E, Ford L, Wolmark N. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:1371-88.
4.Cauley JA, Norton L, Lippman ME, Eckert S, Krueger KA, Purdie DW, Farrerons J, Karasik A, Mellstrom D, Ng KW, Stepan JJ, Powles TJ, Morrow M, Costa A, Silfen SL, Walls EL, Schmitt H, Muchmore DB, Jordan VC, Ste-Marie LG. Continued breast cancer risk reduction in postmenopausal women treated with raloxifene: 4-year results from the MORE trial. Multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2001;65:125-34.
5.Goss PE, Ingle JN, Alés-Martínez JE, Cheung AM, Chlebowski RT, Wactawski-Wende J, McTiernan A, Robbins J, Johnson KC, Martin LW, Winquist E, Sarto GE, Garber JE, Fabian CJ, Pujol P, Maunsell E, Farmer P, Gelmon KA, Tu D, Richardson H; NCIC CTG MAP. 3 Study Investigators. Exemestane for breast-cancer prevention in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 2011;364:2381-91.
6.Kennecke H, Yerushalmi R, Woods R, Cheang MC, Voduc D, Speers CH, Nielsen TO, Gelmon K. Metastatic behavior of breast cancer subtypes. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:3271-7.
7.Mishra LC, Singh BB, Dagenais S. Scientific basis for the therapeutic use of Withania somnifera (ashwagandha): a review. Altern Med Rev 2000;5:334-46.
8.Winters M. Ancient medicine, modern use: Withania somnifera and its potential role in integrative oncology. Altern Med Rev 2006;11:269-77.
9.Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. J Nat Prod 2007;70:461-77.
10.Jayaprakasam B, Zhang Y, Seeram NP, Nair MG. Growth inhibition of human tumor cell lines by withanolides from Withania somnifera leaves. Life Sci 2003;74:125-32.
11.Szarc vel Szic K, Op de Beeck K, Ratman D, Wouters A, Beck IM, Declerck K, Heyninck K, Fransen E, Bracke M, De Bosscher K, Lardon F, Van Camp G, Vanden Berghe W. Pharmacological levels of Withaferin A (Withania somnifera) trigger clinically relevant anticancer effects specific to triple negative breast cancer cells. PLoS One 2014;9:e87850.
12.Senthilnathan P, Padmavathi R, Magesh V, Sakthisekaran D. Modulation of TCA cycle enzymes and electron transport chain systems in experimental lung cancer. Life Sci 2006;78:1010-4.
13.Samuel T, Okada K, Hyer M, Welsh K, Zapata JM, Reed JC. cIAP1 Localizes to the nuclear compartment and modulates the cell cycle. Cancer Res 2005;65:210-8.
14.Li M, Knight DA, Snyder LA, Smyth MJ, Stewart TJ. A role for CCL2 in both tumor progression and immunosurveillance. Oncoimmunology 2013;2:e25474.
15.Namdeo AG, Sharma A, Yadav KN, Gawande R, Mahadik KR, Lopez-Gresa MP, Kim HK, Choi YH, Verpoorte R. Metabolic characterization of Withania somnifera from different regions of India using NMR spectroscopy. Planta Med 2011;77:1958-64.
16.Stan SD, Hahm ER, Warin R, Singh SV. Withaferin A causes FOXO3a-and Bim-dependent apoptosis and inhibits growth of human breast cancer cells in vivo. Cancer Res 2008;68:7661-9.
17.Subbaraju GV, Vanisree M, Rao CV, Sivaramakrishna C, Sridhar P, Jayaprakasam B, Nair MG. Ashwagandhanolide, a bioactive dimeric thiowithanolide isolated from the roots of Withania somnifera. J Nat Prod 2006;69:1790-2.
18.Munagala R, Kausar H, Munjal C, Gupta RC. Withaferin A induces p53-dependent apoptosis by repression of HPV oncogenes and upregulation of tumor suppressor proteins in human cervical cancer cells. Carcinogenesis 2011;32:1697-705.
19.Yang Z, Garcia A, Xu S, Powell DR, Vertino PM, Singh S, Marcus AI. Withania somnifera root extract inhibits mammary cancer metastasis and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. PLoS One 2013;8:e75069.
20.Qian BZ, Li J, Zhang H, Kitamura T, Zhang J, Campion LR, Kaiser EA, Snyder LA, Pollard JW. CCL2 recruits inflammatory monocytes to facilitate breast-tumour metastasis. Nature 2011;475:222-5.
21.Palacios-Arreola MI, Nava-Castro KE, Castro JI, Garcia-Zepeda E, Carrero JC, Morales-Montor J. The role of chemokines in breast cancer pathology and its possible use as therapeutic targets. J Immunol Res 2014;2014:849720.
22.Lee J, Hahm ER, Marcus AI, Singh SV. Withaferin A inhibits experimental epithelial-mesenchymal transition in MCF-10A cells and suppresses vimentin protein level in vivo in breast tumors. Mol Carcinog 2013;54:417-29.
23.Khazal KF, Samuel T, Hill DL, Grubbs CJ. Effect of an extract of Withania somnifera root on estrogen receptor-positive mammary carcinomas. Anticancer Res 2013;33:1519-23.
24.Khazal KF, Hill DL, Grubbs CJ. Effect of Withania somnifera root extract on spontaneous estrogen receptor-negative mammary cancer in MMTV/Neu mice. Anticancer Res 2014;34:6327-32.